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- Chapter 13: European Society in the Age of the Renaissance
- Chapter 14: Reform and Renewal in the Christian Church
- Chapter 15: The Age of Religious Wars and European Expansion
- Chapter 16: Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Western Europe
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- Chapter 19: The Expansion of Europe in the Eighteenth Century
- Chapter 20: The Changing Life of the People
- Chapter 21: The Revolution in Politics
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Chapters 22-31 Outlines
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- Chapter 22: The Revolution in Energy and Industry
- Chapter 23: Ideologies and Upheavals
- Chapter 24: Life in the Emerging Urban Society
- Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism
- Chapter 26: The West and the World
- Chapter 27: The Great Break: War and Revolution
- Chapter 28: The Age of Anxiety
- Chapter 29: Dictatorships and the Second World War
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- Chapter 1: Stats Starts Here
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- Chapter 11: Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly
- Chapter 12: Resource Demand
- Chapter 13: Wage Determinants
- Chapter 14: Rent, Interest, Profit
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Outlines for Chapters 23-31
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- Chapter 23: Introduction to MacroEconomics
- Chapter 24: Output and Income
- Chapter 25: Economic Growth
- Chapter 26: The Business Cycle, Unemployment, Inflation
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Chapter 22 Outline
- The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain
- Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales) was the pioneer in industrialization--which was largely unplanned and with no precedent.
- The eighteenthcentury origins of the Industrial Revolution
- A colonial empire, the expanding Atlantic trade, and a strong and tarifffree home market created new demands for English manufactured goods.
- Cheap food also increased this demand because people could now spend more on clothing, toys, and so on.
- Available capital, stable government, economic freedom, and mobile labor in England encouraged growth.
- The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 1780s and on the Continent after 1815.
- The first factories
- Growing demand for textiles led to the creation of the world's first large factories.
- The puttingout system could not keep up with demand.
- Hargreaves's spinning jenny and Arkwright's water frame speeded up the spinning process.
- Cotton spinning was gradually concentrated in factories.
- Cotton goods became cheaper and more widely available.
- The wages of weavers rose rapidly, and many agricultural workers became handloom weavers.
- Working conditions in the early factories were worse than those for people spinning and weaving at home; factories were viewed as poorhouses.
- Abandoned children became a prime source of labor in the early factories.
- These "apprenticed" workers commonly worked 13-14 hours per day.
- This exploitation led to reform and humanitarian attitudes toward children.
- By 1831, the cotton textile industry had grown to 22 percent of the country's entire industrial production.
- Growing demand for textiles led to the creation of the world's first large factories.
- The problem of energy
- The search for a solution to the energy problem was a major cause of industrialization.
- From prehistoric to medieval times the major energy sources were plants and animals, and human beings and animals did most of the work.
- Energy from the land was limited.
- By the eighteenth century, Britain's major source of fuel, wood, was nearly gone.
- Wood was crucial as a source of heat and as a source of charcoal for the production of iron.
- A new source of power and energy was needed, so people turned to coal.
- The steam engine breakthrough
- Before about 1700, coal was used for heat but not to produce mechanical energy or to run machinery.
- The coal that one miner extracted in one day could be converted into enough energy to create about 27 days' worth of similar energy for other production.
- Early steam engines, such as those of Savery (1698) and Newcomen (1705), were inefficient but revolutionary converters of coal into energy.
- In the 1760s, in Scotland, James Watt increased the efficiency of the steam engine and began to produce them.
- Steam power was used in many industries, and it encouraged other breakthroughs.
- It enabled the textile industry to expand.
- The iron industry was transformed as steam power made coke available.
- Cort's puddling furnace led to increased production of pig iron.
- Before about 1700, coal was used for heat but not to produce mechanical energy or to run machinery.
- The coming of the railroads
- Stephenson's steampowered Rocket was Europe's first locomotive--running on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first important railroad (1830).
- The railroad boom (1830-1850) meant lower transportation costs, larger markets, and cheaper goods.
- Railroad building took workers from their rural life and made them more inclined to become urban dwellers.
- The railroad changed the outlook and values of the entire society.
- Industry and population
- The 1851 Great Exposition, held in the Crystal Palace, reflected the growth of industry and population in Britain and confirmed that Britain was the "workshop of the world."
- GNP grew by 400 percent and population boomed, but average consumption grew by only 75 percent.
- Malthus argued that the population would always exceed the food supply.
- Ricardo said that wages would always be low.
- However, Malthus and Ricardo were proved wrong in the long run.
- Industrialization in continental Europe
- Outside of Britain, industrialization proceeded gradually, with uneven jerks and national and regional variations.
- National variations
- Statistics show that between 1750 and 1830, Britain industrialized more rapidly than other countries--moving twice as fast, for example, as France in 1830.
- Belgium followed Britain's lead, with France showing gradual growth.
- By 1913, Germany and the United States were closing in on Britain; the rest of Europe (along with Japan) grew, while some Asian states (India, China) lost ground.
- The challenge of industrialization
- Revolutions and wars on the Continent retarded economic growth after 1789.
- Continental countries found it difficult to compete with Britain after 1815 because it was so economically and technologically advanced.
- However, continental countries had three advantages.
- Most continental countries had a rich tradition of puttingout enterprise, merchantcapitalists, and urban artisans.
- Britain had done the developmental pathbreaking, so other countries could simply copy the British way of doing things.
- The power of strong central governments could be used to promote industry.
- Agents of industrialization in continental Europe
- Cockerill, in Belgium, was one of many Englishmen who brought British industrial secrets to other parts of Europe.
- In Germany, Harkort's failed attempt to industrialize Germany illustrates the difficulty of duplicating the British achievements.
- Governments aided industrialists by erecting tariffs, building roads and canals, and financing railroads.
- Many thinkers and writers, such as List in Germany, believed that industrialization would advance the welfare of the nation.
- List supported the idea of a tarifffree zone in Germany, the Zollverein (1834).
- Henceforth, goods could move among the German member states without tariffs, but goods from other nations were subject to a tariff.
- Banks played a more important role in industrialization on the Continent than in Britain.
- Industrial banks, such as the Crédit Mobilier, became important in France and Germany in the 1850s.
- These industrial banks mobilized the savings of thousands of small investors and invested them in transportation and industry.
- Capital and labor in the age of the Industrial Revolution
- The new class of factory owners
- As the careers of Watt and Harkort illustrate, capitalist owners were locked into a highly competitive system.
- The early industrialists came from a variety of backgrounds.
- Some came from merchant families, while others came from artisan backgrounds.
- Quakers and Scots were important in Britain, while Protestants and Jews were important in France.
- As factories grew larger, opportunities declined.
- Wives and daughters of successful businessmen were shut out of business activity and were expected to concentrate on feminine and domestic activities.
- The new factory workers
- Many observers claimed that the Industrial Revolution brought misery to the workers.
- The romantic poets Blake and Wordsworth protested the life of the workers and the pollution of the land and water.
- The Luddites smashed the new machines they believed were putting them out of work.
- Engels wrote a blistering attack on the middle classes, The Condition of the Working Class in England (1844).
- Others, such as Ure and Chadwick, claimed that life was improving for the working class.
- The statistics with regard to purchasing power of the worker (real wages) show that there was little or no improvement between 1780 and 1820.
- Between 1792 and 1815, living conditions actually declined as food prices rose faster than wages.
- Only after 1840 did a substantial improvement in real wages occur. Even in this era of improving purchasing power, hours of labor increased and unemployment was present.
- Diet probably improved, as did the supply of clothing, but housing did not.
- Many observers claimed that the Industrial Revolution brought misery to the workers.
- Conditions of work: were workers exploited?
- Working in the factory meant more discipline and less personal freedom--the factory whistle replaced the more relaxed pace of cottage work.
- The refusal of cottage workers to work in factories led to child labor.
- The use of pauper children was forbidden in 1802.
- Urban factories attracted whole families, as did coal mining, and tended to preserve kinship ties.
- Children and parents worked long hours.
- Parliament acted to limit child labor.
- Robert Owen, a successful manufacturer in Scotland, proposed limiting the hours of labor and child labor.
- The Factory Act of 1833 limited child labor and the number of hours children could work in textile factories.
- Factory owners were required to establish elementary schools for the children of their employees.
- Subcontracting led to a close relationship between the subcontractor and his work crew, many of whom were friends and relations.
- Subcontracting helped maintain kinship ties.
- The sexual division of labor
- A new pattern of "separate spheres" emerged.
- The man emerged as the family's primary wage earner, while the woman found only limited job opportunities.
- Married women were much less likely to work outside the house after the first child arrived.
- Women were confined to lowpaying, deadend jobs.
- The reasons for this reorganization of paid work along gender lines are debated.
- One argument centers on the idea of a deeply ingrained "patriarchal tradition," which grew out of the preindustrial craft unions.
- Others claim that factory discipline conflicted with strong incentives on the part of mothers to concentrate on child care.
- This theory centers on the claim that women saw division of labor as the best strategy for family survival in the industrializing society.
- Others argue that sexual division of labor was part of an effort to control the sexuality of workingclass youth.
- Conditions in the coal industry illustrated these points.
- A new pattern of "separate spheres" emerged.
- The early labor movement
- Many kinds of employment changed slowly; farm and domestic labor continued to be most common, and smallscale handicraft production remained unchanged in many trades.
- Working-class solidarity and class consciousness developed--particularly in the north of England--and many employers adopted the feeling that unions were a form of restriction on industrial growth.
- The Combination Act of 1799 outlawed unions and strikes.
- An 1813-1814 law ended wage regulations and allowed the labor market to be flooded with women and children.
- Workers continued to organize and strike, and the Combination Acts were repealed in 1824.
- Owen and others tried to create a national union of workers (the GNCTU), and then after 1851 the craft unions (called "new model unions") won benefits for their members.
- Chartism was a workers' political movement that sought universal male suffrage, shorter work hours, and cheap bread.
- The new class of factory owners